The Tyree Institute Research Library
The Tyree Institute Research Library is a curated collection of published, peer-reviewed research on learning differences. It brings together studies on ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia and math learning differences, auditory processing and listening difficulties, executive function and working memory, and the teaching approaches that help students with learning differences succeed. Each study was sourced through PubMed and Google Scholar, with an emphasis on high-impact journals. Special thanks to the Tyree Committee for helping generate this list.
For each study you will find the citation, a link to the source, and a short summary written for both families and educators: what the research found in plain language, and why it matters in the classroom and at home.
Use the filter buttons below to jump to a topic. Links open in a new window. These summaries are for general education and are not medical or diagnostic advice.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Research to help families and educators understand ADHD in children and adults, how it is diagnosed, and which treatments and school supports have the strongest evidence.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Faraone, S. V., et al. (2015). Nature Reviews Disease Primers. Peer-reviewed research
This is one of the most cited overviews of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder available, covering what ADHD is, how common it is in children and adults, what causes it, and how it is diagnosed and treated. Written by a large team of leading researchers, it explains the genetic and brain-based roots of ADHD and how symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity change across the lifespan. For families new to an ADHD diagnosis, it is a reliable place to understand the full picture rather than a single piece of it. Educators can use it as a grounding reference for how attention and self-regulation differences show up in the classroom.
The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 evidence-based conclusions about the disorder
Faraone, S. V., et al. (2021). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. Peer-reviewed research
More than 80 international experts reviewed the research on ADHD and agreed on 208 evidence-based conclusions, directly correcting many of the myths that circulate online. The statement addresses the questions families ask most often, including whether ADHD is real, whether it is overdiagnosed, and what the long-term outcomes look like without support. It is a practical tool for separating accurate information about attention deficit hyperactivity disorder from misinformation. Because it is consensus-based, it carries unusual weight for parents, teachers, and clinicians making decisions together.
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Posner, J., Polanczyk, G. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2020). The Lancet. Peer-reviewed research
A current, readable summary of how ADHD is diagnosed and treated in both children and adults, published in one of the world's leading medical journals. It walks through the standard of care, including behavioral approaches, school-based support, and medication, and how these are often combined. For families weighing options after an ADHD diagnosis, it lays out what evidence-based ADHD treatment actually looks like. Teachers will find it useful for understanding why a student's support plan may include several elements at once.
Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis
Cortese, S., et al. (2018). The Lancet Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This large network meta-analysis compared the ADHD medications most often prescribed and identified which are most effective and best tolerated for children, adolescents, and adults. It found that different medications suit different age groups, which is why ADHD medication is rarely one-size-fits-all. The paper gives families and physicians a shared, evidence-based reference for conversations about treatment. It is among the most rigorous comparisons of stimulant and non-stimulant medications published to date.
Behavioral interventions in ADHD: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials across multiple outcome domains
Daley, D., et al. (2014). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis of randomized trials found that behavioral interventions, such as parent training and structured routines, produced real improvements in children's behavior and in parenting confidence. These are practical, non-medication strategies that families can use at home and that teachers can reinforce at school. The findings support building consistent structure, clear expectations, and positive reinforcement around a child with ADHD. For parents who want to start with behavioral approaches, this paper shows what the evidence supports.
A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for ADHD (the MTA study)
The MTA Cooperative Group (1999). Archives of General Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This landmark clinical trial followed 579 children with ADHD and remains one of the most influential studies in the field. It found that carefully managed medication, and medication combined with behavioral therapy, worked better than behavioral therapy alone for core symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. The study shaped the ADHD treatment guidelines that clinicians still use today. Families researching the history and evidence behind ADHD treatment will find it foundational.
Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Psychological Bulletin. Peer-reviewed research
This influential theory reframed ADHD as primarily a difficulty with self-control and executive function rather than a simple inability to pay attention. It connects attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to skills like inhibiting impulses, planning ahead, managing time, and holding information in working memory. Understanding this shift helps families and educators see the reasons behind a student's behavior and aim support at self-regulation. It also explains why building executive function routines can help students with ADHD as much as managing attention itself.
Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., et al. (2013). American Journal of Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This careful review examined popular non-medication approaches to ADHD, including dietary changes and psychological treatments. When results were judged by people unaware of who received treatment, only omega-3 fatty acid supplements and removing artificial food colorings showed reliable, though modest, effects. The paper gives families an honest, evidence-based look at dietary interventions so they can set realistic expectations. It is a useful counterweight to strong marketing claims about diet and ADHD.
The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis
Polanczyk, G., et al. (2007). American Journal of Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
By pooling ADHD prevalence studies from around the world, researchers estimated that about 5 percent of children and adolescents have ADHD, with rates fairly consistent across countries. The finding pushes back on the idea that ADHD is a product of one culture or school system. For families, it is reassuring evidence that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is common and genuine. For schools, it underlines why identifying and supporting students with ADHD matters everywhere.
3 types of ADHD: what a new 2026 study found and what it means for you
Nathan, J. (2026). LifeStance Health. Article for families
Read the paper | Read the underlying study in JAMA Psychiatry (Pan et al., 2026)
This accessible article walks families through a 2026 brain-scan study, published in JAMA Psychiatry, that analyzed more than 1,150 people and suggests ADHD may not be a single condition. The research points to three possible types of ADHD, each rooted in a different part of the brain, with different symptoms, different chemistry, and potentially different treatment needs. Written for a general audience, it is an easy place for a parent to start before turning to the underlying study. It is a helpful conversation starter for anyone living with ADHD or supporting someone who is.
Longitudinal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review
Thorell, L. B., et al. (2024). European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This systematic review of long-term studies found a two-way relationship between digital media and ADHD symptoms, with the strongest links tied to problematic media use rather than screen time alone. Children who show ADHD symptoms appear more vulnerable to developing heavy or problematic digital media habits, and media use in turn can influence later ADHD symptoms, partly through effects on sleep and social relationships. For families, it offers a balanced, evidence-based way to think about screens and ADHD rather than simple blame. The authors are careful to note that more research is still needed to fully understand the connection.
Dyslexia
Research on dyslexia and reading disability, including the science of how children learn to read, why some students struggle, which reading interventions work, and how dyslexia affects confidence and long-term outcomes.
Dyslexia (specific reading disability)
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Biological Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This widely cited review from the Yale Center establishes dyslexia as a real, brain-based difference in how the reading circuits work, not a reflection of intelligence or effort. It explains why bright, capable students can still struggle to read, and how a reading disability is identified. For families, it offers reassurance and a clear framework for understanding dyslexia in children. It remains a cornerstone reference for anyone new to the science of reading and dyslexia.
Developmental dyslexia
Peterson, R. L., & Pennington, B. F. (2012). The Lancet. Peer-reviewed research
Published in The Lancet, this review explains that dyslexia results from a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors that add up, rather than a single cause, and that it exists on a continuum. This helps explain why students with dyslexia vary so widely and why no single test tells the whole story. It supports early screening and a spectrum-based view of reading disability. Educators will find it useful for setting expectations about how dyslexia is identified and supported.
Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?
Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This review of four decades of research points to weaknesses in processing the sounds of language, known as phonological processing, as the core driver of most reading difficulty. It dispels older myths, including the idea that dyslexia is mainly about seeing letters backwards. By identifying the real source of the problem, it gives families and teachers a clear target for reading instruction. It is one of the most authoritative summaries of what causes dyslexia.
A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia
Goswami, U. (2011). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Peer-reviewed research
This paper explains how the brain's timing in tracking the rhythm and sound patterns of speech may be a root cause of dyslexia. It links early skills like hearing syllables and rhymes to later success in learning to read. The work supports why phonological awareness activities and sound-based instruction help struggling readers. For educators, it connects the science of speech perception to everyday reading instruction.
Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities
Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Annual Review of Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This review examines rapid automatized naming, the speed at which a child can name a row of familiar letters, colors, or objects, and its strong link to reading fluency. It shows that fluency depends on more than sounding out words, which is why some students decode accurately but still read slowly. Understanding this helps educators support reading speed and automaticity, not only accuracy. It is a key reference for anyone working on reading fluency in students with dyslexia.
Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: a meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervag, M., Lyster, S. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Psychological Bulletin. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis confirms that phonological awareness, the ability to notice and work with the individual sounds in words, is the strongest language skill linked to learning to read. It also shows that children with dyslexia are notably weak in this area. The findings give families and schools strong evidence for why phonics and sound-focused reading instruction belong at the center of support. It is among the most rigorous confirmations of the phonological basis of reading.
Oral language deficits in familial dyslexia: a meta-analysis and review
Snowling, M. J., & Melby-Lervag, M. (2016). Psychological Bulletin. Peer-reviewed research
This review found that children born into families with a history of dyslexia often show subtle spoken-language differences well before they begin to read. It supports watching at-risk children early and starting oral language and phonological work before reading problems take hold. For families where a parent or sibling has dyslexia, it explains why early attention matters. It strengthens the case for early screening and prevention of reading difficulties.
Annual research review: reading disorders revisited, the critical importance of oral language
Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2021). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
This annual research review highlights how reading difficulties and broader spoken-language difficulties often overlap, and how strong oral language underpins reading comprehension, not just word reading. It argues that supporting vocabulary and listening comprehension is as important as teaching decoding. For educators, it broadens the picture of what reading support should include. It reflects current thinking on the link between language and literacy.
Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skilled reading in children after a phonologically-based intervention
Shaywitz, B. A., et al. (2004). Biological Psychiatry. Peer-reviewed research
Using brain imaging, this study found that after structured, sound-based reading instruction, children with dyslexia showed increased activity in the brain regions that skilled readers rely on. It is powerful evidence that effective reading intervention can change how the brain reads, not just improve a test score. For families, it offers real hope that the right instruction makes a lasting difference. It remains one of the most striking demonstrations of the brain's response to structured literacy.
The Yale outcome study: outcomes for graduates with and without dyslexia
Yale Center for Dyslexia & Creativity. Research summary
This study followed college graduates and found that those with dyslexia did not differ from their peers in college or in the workplace. Parents of children with dyslexia often worry about the future, and these findings offer real reassurance that students with dyslexia can succeed in school and go on to thrive at selective colleges. For families, it is an encouraging, evidence-based answer to a very common question. It is a useful reference for educators and clinicians supporting students and their parents.
Social and emotional problems related to dyslexia
International Dyslexia Association. Organization resource
This resource from the International Dyslexia Association looks at the emotional side of dyslexia, including the frustration, anxiety, and self-doubt that can come with a long struggle to read. It helps families and teachers understand that supporting a child with dyslexia means caring for confidence and wellbeing, not only reading skills. The guidance is practical and written with parents and educators in mind. It is a reminder to support the whole child, not just the academic challenge.
Updates from Dyslexiacon 2025: a new definition of dyslexia
IDA Ontario (2025). Article
This article summarizes the major changes in a newly proposed definition of dyslexia and explains what those changes mean for parents, for people with dyslexia, and for teachers. It includes a simple, clear visual model of the risk factors and resilience factors that shape how dyslexia affects each person. For families, it is an up-to-date look at how experts are refining the way dyslexia is understood. It makes an evolving definition easy to follow.
Dyscalculia and Mathematical Learning Differences
Research on dyscalculia and math learning differences, including how number sense develops, why some students struggle with math, and what intervention can do.
Dyscalculia: from brain to education
Butterworth, B., Varma, S., & Laurillard, D. (2011). Science. Peer-reviewed research
Published in Science, this paper establishes dyscalculia as a genuine brain-based difficulty with numbers, not a matter of laziness or poor teaching. It explains that children with dyscalculia can improve with targeted number-sense practice and early intervention. The work reframes persistent math learning difficulties as something to assess and support directly. It is a leading reference for understanding the neuroscience and education of dyscalculia.
Effects of development and enculturation on number representation in the brain
Ansari, D. (2008). Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Peer-reviewed research
This review shows that the brain's ability to handle numbers develops throughout childhood and is shaped by schooling and experience rather than fixed at birth. That means number skills and math ability are teachable, and the developing brain stays responsive to good instruction. For educators, it supports the value of strong, early math teaching. It connects brain development to the way children build numerical understanding.
Developmental dyscalculia
Kucian, K., & von Aster, M. (2015). European Journal of Pediatrics. Peer-reviewed research
This clear overview explains that developmental dyscalculia affects roughly 3 to 6 percent of children and often occurs alongside dyslexia or attention difficulties. It describes the signs families and teachers can watch for and how the condition is identified. For parents noticing persistent trouble with math, it offers a plain-language starting point. It is a useful medical reference on math learning difficulties.
Developmental trajectory of number acuity reveals a severe impairment in developmental dyscalculia
Piazza, M., et al. (2010). Cognition. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that children with dyscalculia have a weaker basic sense of quantity, judging how many items are in a group at a level years behind their peers. It pinpoints an early, measurable skill that screening and math intervention can target before math falls far behind. The finding supports building number sense as a foundation. For educators, it identifies a concrete early marker of math learning difficulties.
Foundational numerical capacities and the origins of dyscalculia
Butterworth, B. (2010). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Peer-reviewed research
This paper argues that dyscalculia stems from a specific weakness in grasping the basic concept of number itself, separate from general intelligence. Understanding this root cause helps educators choose interventions that rebuild number foundations rather than only drilling math facts. It clarifies why some capable students still find arithmetic hard. It is a foundational reference for the origins of dyscalculia.
Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: a study of 8 to 9-year-old students
Landerl, K., Bevan, A., & Butterworth, B. (2004). Cognition. Peer-reviewed research
This study showed that children with dyscalculia struggle with simple tasks like quickly counting dots or comparing which number is larger, even when their reading and IQ are typical. It demonstrates that math difficulty can exist on its own, not just as part of a broader learning difference. The findings give teachers concrete early markers of dyscalculia to look for. It helped establish dyscalculia as a distinct learning difference.
Basic numerical capacities and prevalence of developmental dyscalculia: the Havana survey
Reigosa-Crespo, V., et al. (2012). Developmental Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This large population study confirmed that dyscalculia is common, affecting a few percent of schoolchildren, and that it is more than simply being bad at math. It supports treating dyscalculia as a recognized learning difference worth screening for across a school. For families, it validates that persistent math struggles can have a real, identifiable basis. It is one of the larger prevalence studies of developmental dyscalculia.
An open trial assessment of The Number Race, an adaptive computer game for remediation of dyscalculia
Wilson, A. J., et al. (2006). Behavioral and Brain Functions. Peer-reviewed research
This trial tested The Number Race, an adaptive computer game designed to strengthen number sense in children with dyscalculia. After several weeks of short daily sessions, children showed measurable gains in core numerical skills. It offers families and schools an example of a structured, evidence-based math intervention rather than generic worksheets. It also points to how technology can support targeted practice.
Auditory Processing and Listening Difficulties
Research on auditory processing disorder and listening difficulties in children, including how it is defined, how it overlaps with language and reading, and what the evidence says about treatment.
Nature of auditory processing disorder in children
Moore, D. R., et al. (2010). Pediatrics. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that in many children, listening problems are driven as much by attention and memory as by the ears themselves. It suggests that a child who seems unable to listen may need cognitive and attention support, not only hearing-focused help. For families exploring an auditory processing disorder evaluation, it broadens the questions worth asking. It is an influential paper on the true nature of listening difficulties in children.
Auditory processing disorder in relation to developmental disorders of language, communication and attention: a review and critique
Dawes, P., & Bishop, D. (2009). International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders. Peer-reviewed research
This review shows that auditory processing disorder overlaps heavily with language, reading, and attention disorders, so the same child may receive different labels depending on which specialist they see. It urges families and school teams to consider the whole child rather than assume a single, isolated ear problem. The paper is a careful look at how APD relates to other learning differences. It encourages coordinated, cross-disciplinary assessment.
Characteristics of auditory processing disorders: a systematic review
de Wit, E., et al. (2016). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. Peer-reviewed research
This systematic review found that the symptoms of auditory processing disorder are wide-ranging and not yet captured by any single agreed profile. It helps families understand why an APD diagnosis can vary between clinics and why thorough, multi-area evaluation matters. The paper is a useful map of what is and is not established about auditory processing. It supports careful, comprehensive assessment over quick conclusions.
Comorbidity of auditory processing, language, and reading disorders
Sharma, M., Purdy, S. C., & Kelly, A. S. (2009). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that most children referred for listening problems also had language or reading difficulties, and few had a purely auditory issue. It is a strong argument for evaluating reading and language whenever an auditory processing concern is raised. For schools, it shows why listening difficulties should prompt a broad look at a student's learning profile. It reinforces the overlap between auditory processing disorder and other learning differences.
Computer-based auditory training: benefits for children with language- and reading-related learning difficulties
Loo, J. H. Y., Bamiou, D.-E., Campbell, N., & Luxon, L. M. (2010). Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. Peer-reviewed research
This study looked at computer-based auditory training programs and found that while some children benefit, the evidence for lasting gains in real-world reading and language is limited. It gives families a realistic, cautious view of listening and brain-training products that are heavily marketed. The paper encourages weighing claims carefully before investing time and money. It is a balanced look at what auditory training can and cannot deliver.
Auditory processing disorder and auditory/language interventions: an evidence-based systematic review
Fey, M. E., et al. (2011). Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. Peer-reviewed research
This evidence-based review by a panel of experts found that solid research on which auditory processing treatments actually work remains thin. It helps families and schools ask for evidence before committing to a specific therapy for listening difficulties. The paper models a careful, skeptical approach to APD intervention claims. It is a widely referenced guide for practitioners working in schools.
Evolving the concept of APD
Wilson, W. J. (2018). International Journal of Audiology. Peer-reviewed research
This paper describes how experts still disagree about exactly what auditory processing disorder is and where its boundaries lie. Knowing the diagnosis is genuinely contested helps parents seek broad, careful assessment and stay cautious about overly confident single-cause explanations. It gives families a clear-eyed view of an evolving field. It is a thoughtful discussion of how the concept of APD continues to change.
A randomized control trial of interventions in school-aged children with auditory processing disorders
Sharma, M., Purdy, S. C., & Kelly, A. S. (2012). International Journal of Audiology. Peer-reviewed research
In this controlled trial, both auditory training and language-based training helped children with auditory processing difficulties, suggesting the gains may come from broader language and attention improvements rather than ear-specific fixes. It supports pairing any listening intervention with language and classroom support. For families, it points toward well-rounded rather than narrow approaches. It is one of the more rigorous intervention studies in the field.
Executive Function, Working Memory, and Self-Regulation
Research on executive function, working memory, and self-regulation, the underlying skills that shape attention, organization, and learning for many students, including how technology and daily habits affect them.
Executive functions
Diamond, A. (2013). Annual Review of Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This landmark review explains that executive functions are three core mental skills: holding information in mind through working memory, resisting distractions and impulses, and flexibly shifting between tasks. It gives families and teachers a shared, research-backed vocabulary for the exact skills many students with learning differences need to build. The paper connects executive function to success in school and daily life. It is one of the most cited overviews of the topic.
The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: a latent variable analysis
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., et al. (2000). Cognitive Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This influential study showed that executive function is not one single ability but a set of related yet separable skills, including updating, shifting, and inhibition. Because of this, a student can be strong in one area and struggle in another. Understanding the distinction helps educators pinpoint a specific breakdown rather than labeling a student broadly as unfocused. It laid the groundwork for how researchers measure executive function today.
Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Science. Peer-reviewed research
This review examined a range of approaches, from school curricula and computerized training to exercise, martial arts, and mindfulness, and found that executive function can be improved in childhood. The strongest gains came from repeated practice through activities children enjoy. It offers families and schools concrete, age-appropriate ways to strengthen focus, working memory, and self-control. It is a practical companion to the science of executive function.
Working memory skills and educational attainment: evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Knight, C., & Stegmann, Z. (2004). Applied Cognitive Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that children's working memory scores predicted their achievement in reading, math, and science years later. It suggests that a struggling student may be losing track of multi-step instructions rather than lacking effort or ability. The finding points toward simple classroom strategies like breaking tasks into smaller steps and reducing memory load. It highlights working memory as a key factor in learning.
Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2010). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that a child's early working memory predicted later reading and math achievement even better than IQ did. It argues for identifying and supporting working memory early, rather than waiting on IQ testing to explain why a capable student is falling behind. For families, it reframes some learning struggles as working memory challenges that can be supported. It strengthens the case for working memory screening in schools.
Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten
Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Child Development. Peer-reviewed research
This study found that in kindergartners, self-regulation and executive function predicted early math and reading skills beyond what general intelligence explained. It shows that the foundations of academic success include the ability to manage attention and impulses. These are skills that families and teachers can nurture from an early age. The paper links self-regulation directly to school readiness.
A developmental perspective on executive function
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). Child Development. Peer-reviewed research
This paper maps how the different executive function skills develop at different ages, with some maturing early and others continuing to grow well into adolescence. It reminds families and teachers that a teenager still developing planning and flexibility is on a normal timeline, not simply being careless. The developmental view helps set fair expectations for students. It is a clear reference on how executive function unfolds over childhood.
A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety
Moffitt, T. E., et al. (2011). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Peer-reviewed research
This study followed 1,000 people from birth to age 32 and found that childhood self-control predicted adult health, finances, and wellbeing, and that self-control could improve over time. It makes a strong long-term case for helping children build self-regulation skills. For families and educators, it offers real hope that these skills are changeable rather than fixed. It is one of the most cited studies on the lasting value of self-control.
How is the digital age shaping young minds? A rapid systematic review of executive functions in children and adolescents with exposure to ICT
Maeneja, R., Rato, J., & Ferreira, I. S. (2025). Children, 12(5), 555. Peer-reviewed research
This review looks at how daily exposure to information and communication technologies, such as phones, tablets, and computers, affects executive functioning in children and adolescents. It examines the influence on skills like attention, working memory, and emotional regulation, and highlights the role parents can play in reducing potential negative effects. For families, it connects everyday technology habits to the development of self-control and focus. It is a timely resource as screens become a constant presence in children's lives.
Short-term memory impairment
Asuncion, R. M. D., & Al Khalili, Y. (2024). StatPearls. Clinical reference
This clinical reference explains short-term memory, how it works, and what can cause it to break down. Short-term and working memory sit at the center of many learning differences, shaping how a student follows directions, holds information while solving a problem, and keeps track of steps. The article gives families and educators a clear, medically grounded explanation of a skill that often underlies classroom struggles. It is a helpful background read for understanding working memory challenges.
The impact of executive functioning challenges on academic success
Foothills Psychological Services (2025). Article
This clear, practical article breaks down the different aspects of executive function and how each one affects students in school. It describes the signs to watch for at different ages and outlines interventions that can help, along with how executive function challenges, ADHD, anxiety, and learning differences often overlap. For families and educators, it connects the science of executive function to everyday academic success. It is an approachable overview that pulls many threads together in one place.
Artificial intelligence and executive functioning: enhancing attention, self-regulation, and planning in the classroom
Center for Innovation, Design, and Digital Learning (CIDDL). Article
This article explains the role of executive function in learning and how it shapes working memory, planning, attention, inhibition, emotional regulation, and motivation. It then explores how emerging classroom tools, including artificial intelligence, might support students who struggle in these areas. A helpful chart lays the information out in an easy-to-read format. For educators, it is a forward-looking view of how technology could support executive function in the classroom.
Teaching Approaches and Interventions
Research on evidence-based teaching and intervention for students with learning differences, including explicit instruction, reading and writing intervention, feedback, and progress monitoring.
Experimental intervention research on students with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis of treatment outcomes
Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (1998). Review of Educational Research. Peer-reviewed research
Across 180 studies, this meta-analysis found that the most effective teaching for students with learning disabilities combined explicit, step-by-step instruction with strategy instruction that teaches students how to approach a task. It identifies a clear, repeatable teaching approach rather than any single program or trend. For schools, it is foundational evidence for how to structure instruction and intervention. It remains a touchstone in the field of learning differences.
Mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis of instructional components
Gersten, R., et al. (2009). Review of Educational Research. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis found that for students with learning disabilities in math, the biggest gains came from explicit instruction, teaching students to talk through their reasoning, and using visual representations. It tells teachers which math intervention practices actually move the needle. That makes it easier to spend limited intervention time on what works. It is a leading reference for evidence-based math instruction.
A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Journal of Educational Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis found that teaching adolescents explicit strategies for planning, revising, and editing produced the largest improvements in writing quality. It shows that writing is a teachable process, not just a talent, which matters for students who find writing hard. Teachers gain concrete techniques rather than simply assigning more essays. It is a widely used guide for writing instruction in middle and high school.
Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Galuschka, K., Ise, E., Krick, K., & Schulte-Korne, G. (2014). PLOS ONE. Peer-reviewed research
Reviewing only the most rigorous randomized trials, this analysis found that systematic phonics instruction is the best-supported treatment for reading disability. It steers families toward proven, structured reading methods and away from approaches with weak evidence. For schools, it reinforces the case for structured literacy. It is a clear, evidence-based answer to what works for struggling readers.
The power of feedback
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). Review of Educational Research. Peer-reviewed research
This influential paper found that feedback is one of the strongest influences on learning, but only when it tells a student where they are going, how they are doing, and what to do next, rather than offering only praise or a grade. It shows teachers and parents how to give feedback that genuinely improves a student's work. The framework is practical and widely applied across grade levels. It is among the most cited papers on effective teaching.
A meta-analysis of interventions for struggling readers in grades 4 to 12: 1980 to 2011
Scammacca, N. K., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. K. (2015). Journal of Learning Disabilities. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis found that targeted reading interventions still help older students in grades 4 through 12, not just young children. It counters the common belief that it is too late to help an older struggling reader. For families and schools, it supports continued investment in reading intervention through the middle and high school years. It is strong evidence that reading growth remains possible for adolescents.
A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). Journal of Educational Psychology. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis found that in the elementary grades, explicitly teaching writing strategies, self-regulation, and handwriting and spelling fluency all improved students' writing. It identifies which early writing supports pay off, helping schools build strong foundations before difficulties compound. For teachers of young students, it offers a clear set of priorities. It complements the research on writing instruction for older students.
Effects of systematic formative evaluation: a meta-analysis
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Exceptional Children. Peer-reviewed research
This meta-analysis found that when teachers regularly measured student progress and adjusted instruction based on the data, students with disabilities learned significantly more. It is the foundational evidence for progress monitoring, the practice of frequently checking whether a support is working and changing course if it is not. For schools, it underpins data-based decision making in intervention. It remains a cornerstone of effective learning support.
